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Involuntary commitment

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Sectioning" and "Sectioned" redirect here. For the relevant legislation, see <a href="Mental_Health_Act_1983" title="Mental Health Act 1983">Mental Health Act 1983</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about involuntary hospitalization for those with severe mental disorder. For voluntary treatment, see <a href="Voluntary_commitment" title="Voluntary commitment">voluntary commitment</a>.</div>

Involuntary commitment, civil commitment, or involuntary hospitalization/hospitalisation, or informally in Britain sectioning, being sectioned, commitment, or being committed,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> is a legal process through which an individual who is deemed by a qualified person to have symptoms of severe <a href="Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorder</a> is detained in a <a href="Psychiatric_hospital" title="Psychiatric hospital">psychiatric hospital</a> (inpatient) where they can be <a href="Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">treated involuntarily</a>. This treatment may involve the administration of <a href="Psychoactive_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoactive drugs">psychoactive drugs</a>, including involuntary administration. In many jurisdictions, people diagnosed with mental health disorders can also be forced to undergo treatment while in the community; this is sometimes referred to as <a href="Outpatient_commitment" title="Outpatient commitment">outpatient commitment</a> and shares legal processes with commitment.

Criteria for civil commitment are established by laws which vary between nations. Commitment proceedings often follow a period of emergency hospitalization, during which an individual with acute psychiatric symptoms is confined for a relatively short duration (e.g. 72 hours) in a treatment facility for evaluation and stabilization by mental health professionals who may then determine whether further civil commitment is appropriate or necessary. Civil commitment procedures may take place in a <a href="Court" title="Court">court</a> or only involve physicians. If commitment does not involve a court there is normally an <a href="Appeal" title="Appeal">appeal</a> process that does involve the judiciary in some capacity, though potentially through a specialist court.<a href="#cite_note-no-court-4">[a]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2></div>

For most jurisdictions, involuntary commitment is applied to individuals believed to be experiencing a mental illness that impairs their ability to reason to such an extent that the agents of the law, state, or courts determine that decisions will be made for the individual under a legal framework. In some jurisdictions, this is a proceeding distinct from being found <a href="Incompetence_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompetence (law)">incompetent</a>. Involuntary commitment is used in some degree for each of the following although different jurisdictions have different criteria. Some jurisdictions limit involuntary treatment to individuals who meet statutory criteria for presenting a danger to self or others. Other jurisdictions have broader criteria. The legal process by which commitment takes place varies between jurisdictions. Some jurisdictions have a formal court hearing where testimony and other evidence may also be submitted and the subject of the hearing is typically entitled to legal counsel and may challenge a commitment order through <a href="Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a> Other jurisdictions have delegated these power to physicians,<a href="#cite_note-no-court-1-2">[2]</a> though may provide an appeal process that involves the judiciary but may also involve physicians.<a href="#cite_note-tribunals-7">[b]</a> For example, in the UK a mental health tribunal consists of a judge, a medical member, and a lay representative.<a href="#cite_note-tribunal-members-9">[c]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_aid">First aid</h3></div>

Training is gradually becoming available in mental health first aid to equip community members such as teachers, school administrators, police officers, and medical workers with training in recognizing, and authority in managing, situations where involuntary evaluations of behavior are applicable under law.<a href="#cite_note-10">[7]</a> The extension of first aid training to cover mental health problems and crises is a quite recent development.<a href="#cite_note-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a> A mental health first aid training course was developed in Australia in 2001 and has been found to improve assistance provided to persons with an alleged mental illness or mental health crisis. This form of training has now spread to a number of other countries (Canada, Finland, Hong Kong, Ireland, Singapore, Scotland, England, Wales, and the United States).<a href="#cite_note-13">[10]</a> <a href="Mental_health_triage" title="Mental health triage">Mental health triage</a> may be used in an emergency room to make a determination about potential risk and apply treatment protocols.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Observation">Observation</h3></div>

Observation is sometimes used to determine whether a person warrants involuntary commitment. It is not always clear on a relatively brief examination whether a person should be committed.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Containment_of_danger">Containment of danger</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Obligatory_Dangerousness_Criterion" title="Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion">Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion</a></div>

Austria, Belgium, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Russia, Taiwan, Ontario (Canada), and the United States have adopted <a href="Obligatory_Dangerousness_Criterion" title="Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion">commitment criteria</a> based on the presumed danger of the defendant to self or to others.<a href="#cite_note-14">[11]</a>

People with <a href="Suicide" title="Suicide">suicidal thoughts</a> may act on these impulses and harm or kill themselves.

People with <a href="Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a> are occasionally driven by their <a href="Delusion" title="Delusion">delusions</a> or <a href="Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a> to harm themselves or others. Research has found that those with schizophrenia are between 3.4 and 7.4 times more likely to engage in violent behaviour than members of the general public.<a href="#cite_note-schizophrenia-15">[12]</a> However, because other <a href="Confounding_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Confounding factors">confounding factors</a> such as childhood adversity and poverty are correlated with both schizophrenia and violence it can be difficult to determine whether this effect is due to schizophrenia or other factors. In an attempt to avoid these confounding factors, researchers have tried comparing the rates of violence amongst people diagnosed with schizophrenia to their siblings in a similar manner to <a href="Twin_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin studies">twin studies</a>. In these studies people with schizophrenia are found to be between 1.3 and 1.8 times more likely to engage in violent behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-schizophrenia-15">[12]</a>

People with certain types of <a href="Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">personality disorders</a> can occasionally present a danger to themselves or others.<a href="#cite_note-16">[13]</a>

This concern has found expression in the standards for involuntary commitment in every US state and in other countries as the danger to self or others standard, sometimes supplemented by the requirement that the danger be imminent. In some jurisdictions, the <a href="Obligatory_Dangerousness_Criterion" title="Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion">danger to self or others standard</a> has been broadened in recent years to include need-for-treatment criteria such as "gravely disabled".<a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deinstitutionalization">Deinstitutionalization</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Deinstitutionalisation" title="Deinstitutionalisation">Deinstitutionalisation</a></div>

Starting in the 1960s, there has been a worldwide trend toward moving psychiatric patients from hospital settings to less restricting settings in the community, a shift known as "deinstitutionalization". Because the shift was typically not accompanied by a commensurate development of community-based services, critics say that deinstitutionalization has led to large numbers of people who would once have been inpatients as instead being incarcerated or becoming homeless.<a href="#cite_note-18">[15]</a> In some jurisdictions, laws authorizing court-ordered outpatient treatment have been passed in an effort to compel individuals with chronic, untreated severe mental illness to take <a href="Psychiatric_medication" title="Psychiatric medication">psychiatric medication</a> while living outside the hospital (e.g. <a href="Laura's_Law" title="Laura's Law">Laura's Law</a>, <a href="Kendra's_Law" title="Kendra's Law">Kendra's Law</a>).<a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a>

In a study of 269 patients from <a href="Vermont_State_Hospital" title="Vermont State Hospital">Vermont State Hospital</a> done by Courtenay M. Harding and associates, about two-thirds of the ex-patients did well after deinstitutionalization.<a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Around_the_world">Around the world</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Involuntary_commitment_by_country" title="Involuntary commitment by country">Involuntary commitment by country</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3></div>

In 1838, France enacted a law to regulate both the admissions into asylums and asylum services across the country. <a href="%C3%89douard_S%C3%A9guin" title="Édouard Séguin">Édouard Séguin</a> developed a systematic approach for training individuals with mental deficiencies,<a href="#cite_note-22">[19]</a> and, in 1839, he opened the first school for intellectually disabled people. His method of treatment was based on the idea that intellectually disabled people did not suffer from disease.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3></div>

In the United Kingdom, provision for the care of the <a href="Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mentally ill</a> began in the early 19th century with a state-led effort. Public mental asylums were established in Britain after the passing of the <a href="County_Asylums_Act_1808" title="County Asylums Act 1808">1808 County Asylums Act</a>. This empowered <a href="Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrates</a> to build rate-supported asylums in every <a href="County" title="County">county</a> to house the many "pauper lunatics". Nine counties first applied, and the first public asylum opened in 1812 in <a href="Nottinghamshire" title="Nottinghamshire">Nottinghamshire</a>. <a href="Parliamentary_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary Committee">Parliamentary Committees</a> were established to investigate abuses at private madhouses like <a href="Bethlem_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethlem Hospital">Bethlem Hospital</a> – its officers were eventually dismissed and national attention was focused on the routine use of bars, chains and handcuffs and the filthy conditions in which the inmates lived. However, it was not until 1828 that the newly appointed <a href="Commissioners_in_Lunacy" title="Commissioners in Lunacy">Commissioners in Lunacy</a> were empowered to license and supervise private asylums.

The <a href="Lunacy_Act_1845" title="Lunacy Act 1845">Lunacy Act 1845</a> was a landmark in the treatment of the mentally ill, as it explicitly changed the status of mentally ill people to <a href="Patients" class="mw-redirect" title="Patients">patients</a> who required treatment. The Act created the <a href="Lunacy_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunacy Commission">Lunacy Commission</a>, headed by <a href="Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_7th_Earl_of_Shaftesbury" title="Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury">Lord Shaftesbury</a>, focusing on reform of the legislation concerning lunacy.<a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a> The commission consisted of eleven Metropolitan Commissioners who were required to carry out the provisions of the Act;<a href="#cite_note-Wright,_1999-25">[22]</a> the compulsory construction of asylums in every county, with regular inspections on behalf of the <a href="Home_Secretary" title="Home Secretary">Home Secretary</a>. All asylums were required to have written regulations and to have a resident qualified <a href="Physician" title="Physician">physician</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wright,_1999-25">[22]</a> A national body for asylum superintendents – the Medico-Psychological Association – was established in 1866 under the Presidency of <a href="William_A._F._Browne" title="William A. F. Browne">William A. F. Browne</a>, although the body appeared in an earlier form in 1841.<a href="#cite_note-Shorter41-26">[23]</a>

By the late 1800s, there were almost 300 public and private asylums in Britain and Ireland.<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shorter34-28">[25]</a> By the late 1890s and early 1900s, those so detained had risen to the hundreds of thousands. However, the idea that mental illness could be ameliorated through institutionalization was soon disappointed.<a href="#cite_note-Shorter46-29">[26]</a> Psychiatrists were pressured by an ever-increasing patient population.<a href="#cite_note-Shorter46-29">[26]</a> The average number of patients in asylums kept increasing.<a href="#cite_note-Shorter46-29">[26]</a> Asylums were quickly becoming almost indistinguishable from custodial institutions,<a href="#cite_note-Rothman-30">[27]</a> and the reputation of psychiatry in the medical world had was at an extreme low.<a href="#cite_note-Shorter65-31">[28]</a>

In modern times involuntary detention and treatment without agreement as regulated under one of various sections of the <a href="Mental_Health_Act_1983" title="Mental Health Act 1983">Mental Health Act 1983</a> is informally known as "sectioning".<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> Sectioning is now regulated by the <a href="Mental_Health_Act_2007" title="Mental Health Act 2007">Mental Health Act 2007</a> in England and Wales, the <a href="Mental_Health_(Care_and_Treatment)_(Scotland)_Act_2003" title="Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003">Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003</a> in Scotland and other legislation in Northern Ireland.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

In the United States, the erection of state asylums began with the first law for the creation of one in New York, passed in 1842. The <a href="Utica_State_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Utica State Hospital">Utica State Hospital</a> was opened approximately in 1850. The creation of this hospital, as of many others, was largely the work of <a href="Dorothea_Lynde_Dix" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorothea Lynde Dix">Dorothea Lynde Dix</a>, whose philanthropic efforts extended over many states, and in Europe as far as <a href="Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. Many state hospitals in the United States were built in the 1850s and 1860s on the <a href="Kirkbride_Plan" title="Kirkbride Plan">Kirkbride Plan</a>, an architectural style meant to have curative effect.<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a>

In the United States and most other developed societies, severe restrictions have been placed on the circumstances under which a person may be committed or treated against their will as such actions have been ruled by the <a href="United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> and other national legislative bodies as a violation of <a href="Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> and/or <a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>. The Supreme Court case <a href="O'Connor_v._Donaldson" title="O'Connor v. Donaldson">O'Connor v. Donaldson</a> established that the mere presence of mental illness and the necessity for treatment are not sufficient by themselves to justify involuntary commitment, if the patient is capable of surviving in freedom and does not present a danger of harm to themselves or others. Criteria for involuntary commitment are generally set by the individual states, and often have both short- and long-term types of commitment.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> For example, Kentucky and Ohio have enacted <a href="Casey's_Law" title="Casey's Law">Casey's Law</a>, which permits family members to petition for the involuntary commitment of individuals with substance use disorder through a civil court process. Short-term commitment tends to be a few days or less, requiring an examination by a medical professional, while longer-term commitment typically requires a court hearing, or sentencing as part of a criminal trial. Indefinite commitment is rare and is usually reserved for individuals who are violent or present an ongoing danger to themselves and others.

New York City officials under several administrations have implemented programs involving the involuntary hospitalization of people with mental illnesses in the city.<a href="#cite_note-36">[33]</a> Some of these policies have involved reinterpreting the standard of "harm to themselves or others" to include neglecting their own well-being or posing a harm to themselves or others in the future. In 1987–88, a <a href="Involuntary_hospitalization_of_Joyce_Brown" title="Involuntary hospitalization of Joyce Brown">homeless woman named Joyce Brown</a> worked with the <a href="New_York_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="New York Civil Liberties Union">New York Civil Liberties Union</a> to challenge her forced hospitalization under new Mayor <a href="Ed_Koch" title="Ed Koch">Ed Koch's</a> administration program. The trial, which attracted significant media attention, ended in her favor, and while the city won on appeal she was ultimately released after a subsequent case determined she could not be forcibly medicated.<a href="#cite_note-LLC1988-37">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-apnews-38">[35]</a> In 2022, Mayor <a href="Eric_Adams" title="Eric Adams">Eric Adams</a> announced a similar compulsory hospitalization program, relying on similar legal interpretations.<a href="#cite_note-Kim-2022-39">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a>

Historically, until the mid-1960s in most jurisdictions in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, all committals to public psychiatric facilities and most committals to private ones were involuntary. Since then, there have been alternating trends towards the abolition or substantial reduction of involuntary commitment,<a href="#cite_note-Hendin-41">[38]</a> a trend known as <a href="Deinstitutionalisation" title="Deinstitutionalisation">deinstitutionalisation</a>. In many currents, individuals can voluntarily admit themselves to a mental health hospital and may have more rights than those who are involuntarily committed. This practice is referred to as <a href="Voluntary_commitment" title="Voluntary commitment">voluntary commitment</a>.

In the United States, <a href="Kansas_v._Hendricks" title="Kansas v. Hendricks">Kansas v. Hendricks</a> established the procedures for a long-term or indefinite <a href="Sexually_violent_predator_laws" title="Sexually violent predator laws">form of commitment</a> applicable to people convicted of some <a href="Sex_and_the_law" title="Sex and the law">sexual offences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h3></div>

<a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">General Assembly</a> Resolution 46/119, "<a href="Principles_for_the_Protection_of_Persons_with_Mental_Illness" title="Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness">Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care</a>", is a non-binding resolution advocating certain broadly drawn procedures for the carrying out of involuntary commitment.<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> These principles have been used in many countries where local laws have been revised or new ones implemented. The UN runs programs in some countries to assist in this process.<a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposition_to_the_practice">Opposition to the practice</h2></div>

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The potential dangers of institutions have been noted and criticized by reformers/<a href="Activism" title="Activism">activists</a> almost since their foundation.<a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a> <a href="Charles_Dickens" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a> was an outspoken and high-profile early critic, and several of his novels, in particular <a href="Oliver_Twist" title="Oliver Twist">Oliver Twist</a> and <a href="Hard_Times_(novel)" title="Hard Times (novel)">Hard Times</a> demonstrate his insight into the damage that institutions can do to human beings.<a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a>

<a href="Enoch_Powell" title="Enoch Powell">Enoch Powell</a>, when Minister for Health in the early 1960s, was a later opponent who was appalled by what he witnessed on his visits to the asylums. In a speech in 1961 he called for the integration of the asylums into general hospitals:<a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">"There they stand, isolated, majestic, imperious, brooded over by the gigantic water-tower and chimney combined, rising unmistakable and daunting out of the countryside – the asylums which our forefathers built with such immense solidity to express the notions of their day. Do not for a moment underestimate their powers of resistance to our assault."<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a></blockquote>

Numerous scandals followed, with many high-profile public inquiries.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> These involved the exposure of abuses such as unscientific surgical techniques such as <a href="Lobotomy" title="Lobotomy">lobotomy</a> and the widespread neglect and abuse of vulnerable patients in the US and Europe. The growing <a href="Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">anti-psychiatry</a> movement in the 1960s and 1970s led in Italy to the first successful legislative challenge to the authority of the mental institutions, culminating in their closure. Nonetheless, the involuntary commitment has never ceased to be in force in Italy, despite the evidence of the positive results of its elimination. A prominent example is the work carried out by <a href="Giorgio_Antonucci" title="Giorgio Antonucci">Giorgio Antonucci</a> at the Osservanza and Luigi Lolli psychiatric hospitals in <a href="Imola" title="Imola">Imola</a>, northern Italy, where any form of coercion had been eliminated by Antonucci, who applied a non-psychiatric approach to human suffering.<a href="#cite_note-Antonucci_1989-52">[49]</a>

During the 1970s and 1990s the hospital population started to fall rapidly, mainly because of the deaths of long-term inmates. Significant efforts were made to re-house large numbers of former residents in a variety of suitable or otherwise alternative accommodation. The first 1,000+ bed hospital to close was <a href="Darenth_Park_Hospital" title="Darenth Park Hospital">Darenth Park Hospital</a> in <a href="Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a>, swiftly followed by many more across the UK. The haste of these closures under <a href="Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">Conservative</a> governments led by <a href="Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> and <a href="John_Major" title="John Major">John Major</a>, resulted in considerable criticism in the press.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wrongful_involuntary_commitment">Wrongful involuntary commitment</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Rosenhan_experiment" title="Rosenhan experiment">Rosenhan experiment</a></div>

There are instances in which mental health professionals have wrongfully deemed individuals to have been displaying the symptoms of a <a href="Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorder</a>, and committed the individual for treatment in a <a href="Psychiatric_hospital" title="Psychiatric hospital">psychiatric hospital</a> upon such grounds. Claims of wrongful commitment are a common theme in the <a href="Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">anti-psychiatry movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-nasral-55">[52]</a>

In 1860, the case of <a href="Elizabeth_Packard" title="Elizabeth Packard">Elizabeth Packard</a>, who was wrongfully committed that year and filed a lawsuit and won thereafter, highlighted the issue of wrongful involuntary commitment.<a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a> In 1887, investigative journalist <a href="Nellie_Bly" title="Nellie Bly">Nellie Bly</a> went undercover at an asylum in <a href="New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> to expose the terrible conditions that mental patients at the time had to deal with. She published her findings and experiences as articles in <a href="New_York_World" title="New York World">New York World</a>, and later made the articles into one book called <a href="Ten_Days_in_a_Mad-House" title="Ten Days in a Mad-House">Ten Days in a Mad-House</a>.

In the first half of the twentieth century there were a few high-profile cases of wrongful commitment based on racism or punishment for <a href="Political_dissent" title="Political dissent">political dissenters</a>. In the former <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, <a href="Political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">psychiatric hospitals were used as prisons</a> to isolate <a href="Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoners</a> from the rest of society. British playwright <a href="Tom_Stoppard" title="Tom Stoppard">Tom Stoppard</a> wrote <a href="Every_Good_Boy_Deserves_Favour_(play)" title="Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (play)">Every Good Boy Deserves Favour</a> about the relationship between a patient and his doctor in one of these hospitals. Stoppard was inspired by a meeting with a Russian exile.<a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a> In 1927, after the execution of <a href="Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Sacco and Vanzetti</a> in the United States, demonstrator Aurora D'Angelo was sent to a mental health facility for psychiatric evaluation after she participated in a rally in support of the anarchists.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a>

Throughout the 1940s and 1950s in <a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, 20,000 Canadian children, called the <a href="Duplessis_Orphans" title="Duplessis Orphans">Duplessis orphans</a>, were wrongfully certified as being mentally ill and as a result were committed to psychiatric institutions where they were allegedly forced to take psychiatric medication that they did not need and were abused. They were named after <a href="Maurice_Duplessis" title="Maurice Duplessis">Maurice Duplessis</a>, the <a href="Premier" title="Premier">premier</a> of <a href="Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a> at the time, who deliberately committed these children to misappropriate additional <a href="Subsidy" title="Subsidy">subsidies</a> from the federal government.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> Decades later in the 1990s, several of the orphans sued Quebec and the <a href="Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> for the abuse and wrongdoing.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> In 1958, black pastor and activist <a href="Clennon_Washington_King_Jr." title="Clennon Washington King Jr.">Clennon Washington King Jr.</a> tried enrolling at the <a href="University_of_Mississippi" title="University of Mississippi">University of Mississippi</a>, which at the time was white, for summer classes; the local police secretly arrested and involuntarily committed him to a mental hospital for 12 days.<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Negro_Pastor_Pronounced_Sane-62">[59]</a>

Patients are able to sue if they believe that they have been wrongfully committed.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a> In one instance, Junius Wilson, an African American man, was committed to Cherry Hospital in Goldsboro, North Carolina in 1925 for an alleged crime without a trial or conviction. He was castrated. He continued to be held at Cherry Hospital for the next 67 years of his life. It turned out he was deaf rather than mentally ill.<a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a>

In many U.S. states,<a href="#cite_note-69">[66]</a> sex offenders who have completed a period of incarceration can be civilly committed to a mental institution based on a finding of dangerousness due to a mental disorder.<a href="#cite_note-70">[67]</a> Although the United States Supreme Court determined that this practice does not constitute <a href="Double_jeopardy" title="Double jeopardy">double jeopardy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> organizations such as the <a href="American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> (APA) strongly oppose the practice.<a href="#cite_note-72">[69]</a> The Task Force on Sexually Dangerous Offenders, a component of APA's Council on Psychiatry and Law, reported that "in the opinion of the task force, sexual predator commitment laws represent a serious assault on the integrity of psychiatry, particularly with regard to defining mental illness and the clinical conditions for compulsory treatment. Moreover, by bending civil commitment to serve essentially non-medical purposes, statutes threaten to undermine the legitimacy of the medical model of commitment."<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a>

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<ul><li><a href="5150_(involuntary_psychiatric_hold)" class="mw-redirect" title="5150 (involuntary psychiatric hold)">5150 (involuntary psychiatric hold)</a></li>

<li><a href="Baker_Act" title="Baker Act">Baker Act</a></li>

<li><a href="Civil_confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil confinement">Civil confinement</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Giorgio_Antonucci" title="Giorgio Antonucci">Giorgio Antonucci</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_syndrome" title="Institutional syndrome">Institutional syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_law" title="Medical law">Medical law</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_Health_Act_2007" title="Mental Health Act 2007">Mental Health Act 2007</a></li>

<li><a href="Special_commitment_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Special commitment center">Special commitment center</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulysses_contract" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulysses contract">Ulysses contract</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_creative_arts">In the creative arts</h3></div>

<li><a href="Forrest_Gump_(novel)" title="Forrest Gump (novel)">Forrest Gump (novel)</a>

<ul><li><a href="Forrest_Gump_(film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Forrest Gump (film)">Forrest Gump (film)</a> based on the novel</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo's_Nest_(novel)" title="One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel)">One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel)</a>

<ul><li><a href="One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo's_Nest_(film)" title="One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)">One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)</a>,</li>

<li><a href="One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo's_Nest_(play)" title="One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (play)">One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (play)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Rebel_without_a_Cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Rebel without a Cause">Rebel without a Cause</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div>

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<li id="cite_note-no-court-4"><a href="#cite_ref-no-court_4-0">^</a> See table 2, many countries such as Australia, Denmark, England and Spain do not require the involvement of the judiciary for commitment.<a href="#cite_note-no-court-1-2">[2]</a> See <a href="#cite_note-tribunals-3">[3]</a> for a discussion of mental-health tribunals.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-tribunals-7"><a href="#cite_ref-tribunals_7-0">^</a> For a discussion of the role of physicians in mental health tribunals and its effects see <a href="#cite_note-Thom_Nakarada-Kordic_pp._112–126-6">[5]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-tribunal-members-9"><a href="#cite_ref-tribunal-members_9-0">^</a> "The chair of each Mental Health Tribunal is a legal member who is known as a tribunal judge. There are usually three tribunal members at a hearing, one legal member, one medical member, and one other member, as defined above. Any three or more such members, constituted in this manner, may exercise the jurisdiction of a Mental Health Tribunal" <a href="#cite_note-PuriBrown2017-8">[6]</a> : 99

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/healthadvice/problemsdisorders/beingsectionedengland.aspx">"Being sectioned (in England and Wales)"</a>. Royal College of Psychiatrists. August 2013.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-no-court-1-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-no-court-1_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-no-court-1_2-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFRainsZeninaDiasJones2019" class="citation journal cs1">Rains, Luke Sheridan; Zenina, Tatiana; Dias, Marisa Casanova; Jones, Rebecca; Jeffreys, Stephen; Branthonne-Foster, Stella; Lloyd-Evans, Brynmor; Johnson, Sonia (2019-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6475657">"Variations in patterns of involuntary hospitalisation and in legal frameworks: an international comparative study"</a>. The Lancet Psychiatry. 6 (5): 403–417. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2215-0366%2819%2930090-2">10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30090-2</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2215-0366">2215-0366</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6475657">6475657</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30954479">30954479</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-tribunals-3"><a href="#cite_ref-tribunals_3-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMacgregorBrownStavert2019" class="citation journal cs1">Macgregor, Aisha; Brown, Michael; Stavert, Jill (2019-04-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhsc.12749">"Are mental health tribunals operating in accordance with international human rights standards? A systematic review of the international literature"</a>. Health & Social Care in the Community. 27 (4). Wiley: e494 – e513. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhsc.12749">10.1111/hsc.12749</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0966-0410">0966-0410</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30993806">30993806</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTexas_Young_Lawyers_Association2008" class="citation web cs1">Texas Young Lawyers Association (January 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.texasbar.com/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Free_Legal_Information2&Template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=30801">"Committed To Healing: Involuntary Commitment Procedures"</a> (PDF). Austin, TX: State Bar of Texas. p. 2. <q>The law provides a process known as Involuntary Commitment. Involuntary commitment is the use of legal means to commit a person to a mental hospital or psychiatric ward against their will or over their protests.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Thom_Nakarada-Kordic_pp._112–126-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Thom_Nakarada-Kordic_pp._112–126_6-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFThomNakarada-Kordic2013" class="citation journal cs1">Thom, Katey; Nakarada-Kordic, Ivana (2013-05-22). "Mental Health Review Tribunals in Action: A Systematic Review of the Empirical Literature". Psychiatry, Psychology and Law. 21 (1). Informa UK Limited: 112–126. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13218719.2013.790004">10.1080/13218719.2013.790004</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1321-8719">1321-8719</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143237902">143237902</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-PuriBrown2017-8"><a href="#cite_ref-PuriBrown2017_8-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBasant_PuriRobert_BrownHeather_McKeeIan_Treasaden2017" class="citation book cs1">Basant Puri; Robert Brown; Heather McKee; Ian Treasaden (28 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pknOBQAAQBAJ">Mental Health Law 2EA Practical Guide</a>. CRC Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4441-4975-3</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/cs/background">"About"</a>. Mental Health First Aid USA. National Council for Behavioral Health. 2013-10-10. Retrieved 2013-12-21.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKitchenerJorm2002" class="citation journal cs1">Kitchener, Betty A.; Jorm, Anthony F. (1 October 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC130043">"Mental health first aid training for the public: evaluation of effects on knowledge, attitudes and helping behaviour"</a>. BMC Psychiatry. 2: 10. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-244X-2-10">10.1186/1471-244X-2-10</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC130043">130043</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12359045">12359045</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKitchenerJormKelly2010" class="citation book cs1">Kitchener, Betty; Jorm, Anthony; Kelly, Claire (2010). Mental Health First Aid Manual (2nd ed.). Parkville, Victoria: ORYGEN Youth Health Resource Centre. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9805541-3-7</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/608074743">608074743</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKitchenerJorm2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kitchener, Betty A.; Jorm, Anthony F. (February 2008). "Mental health first aid: an international program for early intervention". Early Intervention in Psychiatry. 2 (1): 55–61. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1751-7893.2007.00056.x">10.1111/j.1751-7893.2007.00056.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21352133">21352133</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11813019">11813019</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAppelbaum1997" class="citation journal cs1">Appelbaum, Paul S. (June 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jaapl.org/content/25/2/135">"Almost a Revolution: An International Perspective on the Law of Involuntary Commitment"</a>. <a href="Journal_of_the_American_Academy_of_Psychiatry_and_the_Law" title="Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law">Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law</a>. 25 (2): 135–147. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9213286">9213286</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-schizophrenia-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schizophrenia_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-schizophrenia_15-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFFazelGulatiLinsellGeddes2009" class="citation journal cs1">Fazel, Seena; Gulati, Gautam; Linsell, Louise; Geddes, John R.; Grann, Martin (2009-08-11). McGrath, John (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2718581">"Schizophrenia and Violence: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"</a>. PLOS Medicine. 6 (8). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e1000120. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000120">10.1371/journal.pmed.1000120</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1549-1676">1549-1676</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2718581">2718581</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19668362">19668362</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite class="citation book cs1">State Standards for Civil Commitment. Arlington, Virginia: Treatment Advocacy Center. 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDearWolch1987" class="citation book cs1">Dear, Michael J.; Wolch, Jennifer R. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GPz_AwAAQBAJ&q=Deinstitutionalization+homeless&pg=PP1">Landscapes of Despair: From Deinstitutionalization to Homelessness</a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Legacy Library. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781400858965</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFOrlando2013" class="citation web cs1">Orlando, James (Jan 24, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cga.ct.gov/2013/rpt/2013-R-0041.htm">"Involuntary Civil Commitment and Patients' Rights"</a>. <a href="Connecticut_General_Assembly" title="Connecticut General Assembly">Connecticut General Assembly</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150320002558/http://www.cga.ct.gov/2013/rpt/2013-R-0041.htm">Archived</a> from the original on March 20, 2015.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thompsononeillaw.com/our-blog/wrongful-termination-and-discrimination/can-an-involuntary-commitment-be-false-imprisonment-if-it-is-not-malpractice.html">"Can an involuntary commitment be false imprisonment if it is not malpractice?: Thompson O'neil Law"</a>. Thompson & O'Neil Law. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191220003942/http://www.thompsononeillaw.com/our-blog/wrongful-termination-and-discrimination/can-an-involuntary-commitment-be-false-imprisonment-if-it-is-not-malpractice.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 20, 2019. Retrieved 2020-07-13.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSwofford1993" class="citation web cs1">Swofford, Stan (Jan 30, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://greensboro.com/townnews/law/locked-up-and-castrated-for-a-crime-he-wasnt-convicted-of-a-deaf-man-spends/article_cbd24d8c-6765-5ec1-a8a9-cf2ea955b98f.html">"Locked up and castrated for a crime he wasn't convicted of"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWright1993" class="citation web cs1">Wright, Gary (June 24, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1993-06-24-1993175006-story.html">"Now 95, deaf man was castrated, locked up for decades"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/f2437200e764f6de97836b0ea2c5f560">"Deaf Man To Be Released After 67 Years In Psychiatric Hospital"</a>. AP News. Nov 10, 1992.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHamilton-Smith2018" class="citation web cs1">Hamilton-Smith, Guy (2018-11-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ajustfuture.org/the-endless-punishment-of-civil-commitment-2/">"The Endless Punishment of Civil Commitment"</a>. Just Future Project. Retrieved 2020-11-18.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSignorelli2020" class="citation web cs1">Signorelli, Nina (2020-07-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ajustfuture.org/a-backdoor-around-double-jeopardy/">"A Backdoor Around Double Jeopardy"</a>. Just Future Project. Retrieved 2020-11-18.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <cite><a href="Kansas_v._Hendricks" title="Kansas v. Hendricks">Kansas v. Hendricks</a></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cite.case.law/us/521/346/">521 U.S. 346</a>, 361 (1997) ("The thrust of Hendricks' argument is that the Act establishes criminal proceedings; hence confinement under it necessarily constitutes punishment. He contends that where, as here, newly enacted 'punishment' is predicated upon past conduct for which he has already been convicted and forced to serve a prison sentence, the Constitution's Double Jeopardy and Ex Post Facto Clauses are violated. We are unpersuaded by Hendricks' argument that Kansas has established criminal proceedings.").

</li>

<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ajustfuture.org/apa-opposes-civil-commitment-of-sex-offenders-after-prison/">"APA Opposes Civil Commitment of Sex Offenders After Prison"</a>. Just Future Project. 2019-11-08. Retrieved 2020-11-18.</cite>

</li>

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</style><cite class="csblue" id="CITEREF"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.appi.org/Dangerous_Sex_Offenders">Dangerous Sex Offenders: A Task Force Report of the American Psychiatric Association</a>, American Psychiatric Association at 173 (1999).</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/news/publications/assessing-real-risk-sexually-violent-predators-doctor-padillas-dangerous-data-tamara-rice-lave-and-franklin-e-zimring-2018/">"Assessing the Real Risk of Sexually Violent Predators: Doctor Padilla's Dangerous Data, Tamara Rice Lave and Franklin E. Zimring, 2018"</a>. Prison Legal News. Retrieved 2020-12-03.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Commitment_(mental_health)" class="extiw external" title="q:Commitment (mental health)">Commitment (mental health)</a>.</div></div>

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</style><div class="refbegin" style="">

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAtkinson2006" class="citation book cs1">Atkinson, Jacqueline M. (2006). Private and Public Protection: Civil Mental Health Legislation. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-903765-61-6</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/475785132">475785132</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBlackMunro1993" class="citation book cs1">Black, George; <a href="Robin_Munro" title="Robin Munro">Munro, Robin</a> (1993). Black Hands of Beijing: Lives of Defiance in China's Democracy Movement. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-471-57977-9</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27186722">27186722</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPerlin1993" class="citation journal cs1">Perlin, Michael L. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/jlh/vol8/iss1/4/">"The ADA and Persons with Mental Disabilities: Can Sanist Attitudes Be Undone?"</a>. Journal of Law and Health. 8 (15): 15–45.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRosenhan1973" class="citation journal cs1">Rosenhan, D.L. (19 January 1973). "On being sane in insane places". Science. 179 (4070): 250–258. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Sci...179..250R">1973Sci...179..250R</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.179.4070.250">10.1126/science.179.4070.250</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4683124">4683124</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146772269">146772269</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSpitzer1975" class="citation journal cs1">Spitzer, Robert L. (October 1975). "On pseudoscience in science, logic in remission, and psychiatric diagnosis: A critique of Rosenhan's 'On being sane in insane places'". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 84 (5): 442–452. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0077124">10.1037/h0077124</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1194504">1194504</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSulzbergerCarey2011" class="citation news cs1">Sulzberger, A.G.; Carey, Benedict (18 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/19/us/19mental.html">"Getting Someone to Psychiatric Treatment Can Be Difficult and Inconclusive"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220103/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/19/us/19mental.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-01-03.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTorrey1998" class="citation book cs1">Torrey, E. Fuller (1998). Out of the Shadows: Confronting America's Mental Illness Crisis. New York: Wiley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-471-24532-2</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/502210396">502210396</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTsesis1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Alexander_Tsesis" title="Alexander Tsesis">Tsesis, Alexander V.</a> (Fall 1998). "Protecting Children Against Unnecessary Institutionalization". South Texas Law Review. 39 (4): 995–1027. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12778917">12778917</a>. <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1031713">1031713</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> Session 46 Resolution 119. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://undocs.org/A/RES/46/119">The protection of persons with mental illness and the improvement of mental health care A/RES/46/119</a> 17 December 1991. Retrieved accessdate. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/46/a46r119.htm">HTML</a>.</li>

<li>Report of the Committee of Inquiry into allegations of ill-treatment of patients and other irregularities at the Ely Hospital, Cardiff, HMSO 1969 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.sochealth.co.uk/history/Ely.htm">[1]</a></li>

<li>Extracts of the Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Normansfield Hospital - British Medical Journal, 1978, 2, 1560-1563 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1608780&blobtype=pdf">[2]</a></li>

<li><a href="Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a> <a href="Asylums_(book)" title="Asylums (book)">Asylums</a></li>

<li><a href="William_H._Whyte" title="William H. Whyte">Whyte, William H.</a>, The Organization Man, Doubleday Publishing, 1956. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/50s/whyte-main.html">excerpts from Whyte's book</a>)</li>

<li>The Production and Reproduction of Scandals in Chronic Sector Hospitals Amy Munson- Barkshire 1981 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.sochealth.co.uk/history/Scandal1.html">[3]</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nrc-pad.org">National Resource Center on Psychiatric Advance Directives</a> (United States)</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usf.edu/cbcs/baker-act/">"Baker Act Reporting Center"</a>. College of Behavioral and Community Sciences. University of South Florida.</cite> Provides information related to <a href="Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>'s Civil Commitment Statute.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nami.org">National Alliance on Mental Illness</a> (United States)</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Mental_health_law138" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Mental_health_law" title="Mental health law">Mental health law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Involuntary treatment</a></li>

<li> (<a href="Involuntary_commitment_by_country" title="Involuntary commitment by country">by country</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Outpatient_commitment" title="Outpatient commitment">Outpatient commitment</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_commitment" title="Voluntary commitment">Voluntary commitment</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Obligatory_Dangerousness_Criterion" title="Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion">Obligatory Dangerousness Criterion</a></li>

<li><a href="Duty_to_protect" title="Duty to protect">Duty to protect</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatism_(law)" title="Automatism (law)">Automatism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Currently regulated <a href="Therapy" title="Therapy">medical interventions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug"> Psychoactive drugs</a></li>

<li><a href="Castration" title="Castration">Castration</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_castration" title="Chemical castration">Chemical castration</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychosurgery" title="Psychosurgery">Psychosurgery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laws</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kendra's_Law" title="Kendra's Law">Kendra's Law</a></li>

<li><a href="Laura's_Law" title="Laura's Law">Laura's Law</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Court" title="Court">Courts</a> and <a href="Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Court_order" title="Court order">Court order</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_health_tribunal" title="Mental health tribunal">Mental health tribunal</a></li>

<li><a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-psychiatry95" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Anti-psychiatry95" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biopsychiatry_controversy" title="Biopsychiatry controversy">Biopsychiatry controversy</a></li>

<li><a href="Controversies_about_psychiatry" title="Controversies about psychiatry">Controversies about psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_Psychiatry_Network" title="Critical Psychiatry Network">Critical psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Hearing_Voices_Movement" title="Hearing Voices Movement">Hearing Voices Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_mental_disorders" title="History of mental disorders">History of mental disorders</a></li>

<li><a href="Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Involuntary treatment</a></li>

<li><a href="Martha_Mitchell_effect" title="Martha Mitchell effect">Martha Mitchell effect</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">Medical ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Medicalization" title="Medicalization">Medicalization</a>

<ul><li><a href="Medicalisation_of_sexuality" title="Medicalisation of sexuality">of sexuality</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_model" title="Medical model">medical model</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nouthetic_counseling" title="Nouthetic counseling">Nouthetic counseling</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement">Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_disintegration" title="Positive disintegration">Positive disintegration</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Recovery_model" title="Recovery model">Recovery model</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Rhetoric of therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Rosenhan_experiment" title="Rosenhan experiment">Rosenhan experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-help_groups_for_mental_health" title="Self-help groups for mental health">Self-help groups for mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Therapeutic_community" title="Therapeutic community">Therapeutic community</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="American_Association_for_the_Abolition_of_Involuntary_Mental_Hospitalization" title="American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization">American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Aspies_For_Freedom" title="Aspies For Freedom">Aspies For Freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="Autism_Network_International" title="Autism Network International">Autism Network International</a></li>

<li><a href="Bazelon_Center_for_Mental_Health_Law" title="Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law">Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law</a></li>

<li><a href="Citizens_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="Citizens Commission on Human Rights">Citizens Commission on Human Rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_Psychiatry_Network" title="Critical Psychiatry Network">Critical Psychiatry Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability_Rights_International" title="Disability Rights International">Disability Rights International</a></li>

<li><a href="Hearing_Voices_Network" title="Hearing Voices Network">Hearing Voices Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Icarus_Project" title="Icarus Project">Icarus Project</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Disability_Alliance" title="International Disability Alliance">International Disability Alliance</a></li>

<li><a href="Learning_Disability_Coalition" title="Learning Disability Coalition">Learning Disability Coalition</a></li>

<li><a href="Mad_Pride" class="mw-redirect" title="Mad Pride">Mad Pride</a></li>

<li><a href="MindFreedom_International" title="MindFreedom International">MindFreedom International</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Empowerment_Center" title="National Empowerment Center">National Empowerment Center</a></li>

<li><a href="Radical_Psychology_Network" title="Radical Psychology Network">Radical Psychology Network</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehabilitation_International" title="Rehabilitation International">Rehabilitation International</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability_Rights_UK" title="Disability Rights UK">Royal Association for Disability Rights</a></li>

<li>Paranoia Network</li>

<li><a href="Soteria_(psychiatric_treatment)" title="Soteria (psychiatric treatment)">Soteria</a></li>

<li><a href="Socialist_Patients'_Collective" title="Socialist Patients' Collective">Socialist Patients' Collective</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Network_of_Users_and_Survivors_of_Psychiatry" title="World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry">World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Linda_Andre" title="Linda Andre">Linda Andre</a></li>

<li><a href="Giorgio_Antonucci" title="Giorgio Antonucci">Giorgio Antonucci</a></li>

<li><a href="Franco_Basaglia" title="Franco Basaglia">Franco Basaglia</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernest_Becker" title="Ernest Becker">Ernest Becker</a></li>

<li><a href="Lauretta_Bender" title="Lauretta Bender">Lauretta Bender</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Bentall" title="Richard Bentall">Richard Bentall</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Breggin" title="Peter Breggin">Peter Breggin</a></li>

<li><a href="Paula_Caplan" title="Paula Caplan">Paula Caplan</a></li>

<li><a href="Ted_Chabasinski" title="Ted Chabasinski">Ted Chabasinski</a></li>

<li><a href="Judi_Chamberlin" title="Judi Chamberlin">Judi Chamberlin</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)" title="David Cooper (psychiatrist)">David Cooper</a></li>

<li><a href="Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li>

<li><a href="Leonard_Roy_Frank" title="Leonard Roy Frank">Leonard Roy Frank</a></li>

<li><a href="Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Gottstein" title="James Gottstein">James Gottstein</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_C._G%C3%B8tzsche" title="Peter C. Gøtzsche">Peter C. Gøtzsche</a></li>

<li><a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a></li>

<li><a href="R._D._Laing" title="R. D. Laing">R. D. Laing</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Lehmann_(author)" title="Peter Lehmann (author)">Peter Lehmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Kate_Millett" title="Kate Millett">Kate Millett</a></li>

<li><a href="Loren_Mosher" title="Loren Mosher">Loren Mosher</a></li>

<li><a href="Joanna_Moncrieff" title="Joanna Moncrieff">Joanna Moncrieff</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Oaks" title="David Oaks">David Oaks</a></li>

<li><a href="Elizabeth_Packard" title="Elizabeth Packard">Elizabeth Packard</a></li>

<li><a href="Sascha_Altman_DuBrul" title="Sascha Altman DuBrul">Sascha Scatter</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Smail_(psychologist)" title="David Smail (psychologist)">David Smail</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_Ticktin" title="Stephen Ticktin">Stephen Ticktin</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Whitaker_(author)" title="Robert Whitaker (author)">Robert Whitaker</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Against_Therapy" title="Against Therapy">Against Therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Anatomy_of_an_Epidemic" title="Anatomy of an Epidemic">Anatomy of an Epidemic</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Oedipus" title="Anti-Oedipus">Anti-Oedipus</a></li>

<li><a href="Asylums_(book)" title="Asylums (book)">Asylums</a></li>

<li><a href="Crazy_Therapies" title="Crazy Therapies">Crazy Therapies</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctoring_the_Mind" title="Doctoring the Mind">Doctoring the Mind</a></li>

<li><a href="Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia" title="Interpretation of Schizophrenia">Interpretation of Schizophrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberation_by_Oppression" title="Liberation by Oppression">Liberation by Oppression</a></li>

<li><a href="Mad_in_America" title="Mad in America">Mad in America</a></li>

<li><a href="Madness_and_Civilization" title="Madness and Civilization">Madness and Civilization</a></li>

<li><a href="Radical_Psychology_Network" title="Radical Psychology Network">Radical Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Gene_Illusion" title="The Gene Illusion">The Gene Illusion</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Myth_of_Mental_Illness" title="The Myth of Mental Illness">The Myth of Mental Illness</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Politics_of_Experience_and_The_Bird_of_Paradise" title="The Politics of Experience and The Bird of Paradise">The Politics of Experience and The Bird of Paradise</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Protest_Psychosis" title="The Protest Psychosis">The Protest Psychosis</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Radical_Therapist" title="The Radical Therapist">The Radical Therapist</a></li>

<li><a href="We've_Had_a_Hundred_Years_of_Psychotherapy_%E2%80%93_and_the_World's_Getting_Worse" title="We've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – and the World's Getting Worse">We've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – and the World's Getting Worse</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="Portal%3APsychiatry" title="Portal:Psychiatry">Psychiatry portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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